The Black 369th in Oswego

by James J. Cummings

Mr. Cummings is a graduate of the State University College at Oswego. While writing this paper he was a student in the honors program of the S.U.C.O. history department and contributed this research in a class in urban history.

Although Oswego in its earlier days had considerable contact with black folks through its underground railroad, very few blacks have ever lived in Oswego. Thus, the people of Oswego have been denied the opportunity to live with and know black people. When Dr. Lapping, of the S.U.C.O. history department, mentioned that an all black regiment had been stationed at Fort Ontario in 1941 I thought it would prove interesting to investigate the story behind the stay of the regiment and the relationship it had with the Oswego community.

Since this regiment was comprised of 1,800 men it increased the population of Oswego a great deal percentage-wise, thus causing overcrowding in areas of entertainment, housing, and eating. Of specific interest is to see how both groups (soldiers and Oswegonians) handled their situations. Were there tensions and antagonisms? Did both groups try particularly hard to have rapport? Was it successful as an experiment in social integration? Were traditional barriers and myths between blacks and whites at least partially destroyed? Could the relatively quiet community of Oswego fulfill the needs of this group of men accustomed to the cosmopolitanism of Harlem, New York? How were Oswego residents affected?

To the above questions I have, on the whole, addressed myself during my research and in this paper.

Because no one, to my knowledge, has written about this subject before, a great deal of my information was acquired through personal testimony. I tried my best to determine what was true from recollections often blurred by over twenty years time.

In gathering information for this study I utilized much of the local media. The editor of the Palladium-Times was kind enough to print two separate articles about the study along with my request for personal recollections. In addition, I spoke briefly on the two local radio stations, WSGO and WOSC, outlining my subject and again requesting information. I received close to twenty replies from people who relayed their recollections and opinions to me and directed me to others for more information.

It could be said that my information was obtained in such a manner as to meet only favorable responses because those with negative feelings might have been reluctant to contact me. In addition, I have obtained scores of opinions from people I have had contact with in everyday life in Oswego and who remember the regiment.

The overwhelming majority of opinions were quite positive, as I. have reported. No doubt there are some inaccuracies in this paper, which is the risk in dealing with oral history, but I have done my best to make them as few in number as possible by double checking stories, dates, etc., with as many sources as possible.

The 369th Coast Artillery was recognized as a National Guard unit and was called into federal service on January 13, 1941, to prepare for the possibility of United States entry into the already raging war. Originally it was organized on June 2, 1913, as a “Negro regiment” designated the 15th Infantry and was cited for bravery eleven times for action in World War I. It was reorganized as the 369th Infantry in 1924 and remained so until it was converted into a coast artillery regiment in August of 1940. The 369th consisted of two anti-aircraft gun battalions and a searchlight battalion.

In early January of 1941 the Oswego Palladium-Times started mentioning the 369th and its planned arrival. Thirty barracks for enlistees, sixty-five buildings in all, were built for the new regiment by Witaka Construction Company at a cost of $600,000. Included were a new theater, barbershop, canteen, and recreation hall.

The outfit was commanded by Benjamin Davis, the first black general in America, until January 14, 1941, whereupon Colonel Chauncey Hooper took command, a position he held throughout the remaining stay of the 369th in Oswego.

The regiment was sent to Oswego to train on the shores of Lake Ontario since it was an anti-aircraft coast artillery unit. The training was going to be intense because not only was the newly converted unit “green” as an anti-aircraft outfit but they also had to learn how to use the latest sophisticated equipment.

There is some question among several residents over the true reason for the 369th being sent particularly to Oswego. Although Lake Ontario was quite suitable for the unit’s training because its expansiveness allowed safe practice!shooting at targets towed behind planes, a number of residents believe the unit was sent to Oswego by President Roosevelt in retaliation for Oswego’s behavior in the 1936 presidential election, Roosevelt won the election by a great landslide; however, Oswego gave Roosevelt’s opponent, Landon, its majority.

Although I cannot be certain it seems that this opinion, held by a minority of those interviewed, overlooks several factors. First, if there were any hostilities between the 369th and the city, most likely the soliders would have gotten the worst of it, and Roosevelt had no quarrel with them. Secondly, there were more effective ways of gaining revenge, if that is what Roosevelt wanted, such as cutting federal patronage to the area and instigating tax investigations of local leaders. Thirdly, Roosevelt was absorbed with issues of much greater importance such as the nation’s economy and the impending war. It is doubtful that he would play with an important segment of the nation’s defense to avenge a relatively insignificant event which had taken place five years earlier.

Generally, upon hearing that an all black unit was being sent to Oswego, the people were somewhat anxious for two reasons. One, the regiment was 1,800 strong and that would create overcrowding at recreational, entertainment, and eating facilities of the city. Second, in the very early 1900’s a black infantry unit had been stationed at Oswego for a time and there supposedly had been a significant amount of tension.

The Oswego Palladium-Times and many leaders in the military and the Oswego community were aware of these anxieties and were careful in trying to establish a cordial atmosphere. The Palladium-Times printed several quotes from various sources noting the 369th’s valorous history, its respect and dignity, and the assets it would bring to the community. Many military leaders praised the unit and predicted a very favorable relationship. Many local leaders were anxious for a good rapport and made statements to insure that there would be. One leader in particular, Charles Riley, Superintendent of Schools, sent a letter on January 23rd to all of the faculty members. It reflected somewhat how a sizeable number of local leaders felt. The letter also appeared in the Palladium-Times and it read as follows:

With the advent of the colored troops at Fort Ontario a problem is presented which perhaps needs some attention from our schools. I refer to the thoughtless, discourteous, and slurring remarks that young people and adults make on the streets and in public places within hearing distance of colored soldiers.

Democracy does not discriminate between race, color, or creed. Democracy knows no classes but expects each citizen to carry his share of the load. Uncle Sam has called this regiment of the National Guard to the regular army for a year of intensive training so that they may be ready to fight democracy’s battles.

May I therefore urge every principal and teacher to discuss this problem with their students to insure a square deal for this group during their stay in Oswego.

This is a guidance problem involving courtesy and tolerance in the American way. Fraternity is not involved.

On Wednesday, January 22, 1941, the 369th arrived in special trains from New York City after being sent off by a crowd of over 5,000. The barracks at Fort Ontario had been set up with cots, blankets, tables, and other necessities by a small unit which had come in advance. The soldiers were generally pleased with their new setting and their relative proximity to New York City.

Soon after their arrival several facts were made known which would benefit Oswegonians. The 369th would be paid a total of $110,000 a month which local businessmen were happy to hear. Also, the unit had several notable personalities, an excellent band, a basketball, rifle, baseball, and track team, and several amateur boxers.

Among the notable personalities was Reverend Benjamin Richardson who was the 369th’s Congregational chaplin. He had studied at Harvard and Columbia and besides being an excellent speaker, he was a poet, author and artist. Some of his art works were on exhibit at Symphony Hall in Boston and his murals could be viewed at the Howard Divinity School and at some of the state buildings of his native Florida. Later he published the Post Hole for the 369th at Fort Ontario.

“Long John” Woodruff, who left his work for his master of arts degree at New York University to join the 369th, was a gold medal winner of the mile run at the Olympics at Berlin in 1936. Called “Long John” because of his exceptionally long running stride (over nine feet), he performed in several track exhibitions for the community.

Russell A. Wooding, the 369th bandmaster, was quite well known, particularly in New York City. He had directed the orchestra at the Apollo Theater, directed the New York Giants’ football team band, arranged music for several Broadway musicals for George White, Irving Berlin, and the Schuberts. Not only did Wooding direct the 369th’s formal marching band but also led its jazz band which had among its ranks such people as Reuben Reeves, who attended the American Conservatory of Music and had played with Cab Calloway at the Cotton Club and toured with Connie’s Hot Chocolates, and Otis Johnson, who played with Benny Caster and Don Redman’s band and spent three years with Louis Armstrong’s band.

This jazz band was carrying on a musical tradition started in the unit by Jim Europe during World War I. Jim Europe and his manager, Noble Sissle, were inducted into the 15th Infantry (now the 369th) and made band leaders of the regiment. Europe’s band gained fame from playing in parades and for men in France just back from the front lines. Eventually Europe and the band toured the entire United States. Jim Europe was later involved in an incident in which he was fatally stabbed and it is said that on his deathbed he said,”Sissle, carry on as I have outlined,” and died. Since then music has been a tradition of the 369th.

Time did a feature article on the band in March of 1941 and said, “The United States band which speaks for itself with the most authority is one at Fort Ontario.”

It did not take the 369th long to get itself settled. Soon after their arrival liberty was granted to soldiers between 5 p.m. and 11 p.m. and many strolled through the city to familiarize themselves with it. Entertainment facilities were not able to satisfy the large numbers of men but the problem was partially alleviated by the organization of weekend bus trips to Syracuse where they were entertained by many local blacks at the Dunbar Social Center. Also, some special trains were arranged for occasional weekend trips to New York City (these usually occurred around pay day).

The fact that many of the men were leaving Oswego to spend their money was cause for some concern among local businessmen, however, the Palladium-Times was pleased to point out that the great majority would stay in Oswego to spread their wealth!

Captain Steele wasted no time in re-organizing the outfit’s basketball team which first competed at the Dunbar Center and then at the Oswego YMCA. Eventually the team played regularly in Fulton and Oswego and went on to play in both city championships. It won the championship in Fulton but lost in Oswego to the Oswego Merchants.

The track team, headed by “Long John” Woodruff, treated the soldiers and local civilians to several activities. Because of a personal friendship with a member of the team, Jessie Owens, often called “the fastest man alive,” came up to Fort Ontario and put on a running exhibition. Melvin McFee, then coach of the Oswego High School track team, informed me that several exhibition meets were held between the school and the military teams. These proved very interesting to local residents, especially on Independence Day when the largest exhibition occurred.

At the final Oswego basketball championship game the overflow crowd was treated by Wooding’s jazz band at half-time. Oswego was often entertained by the jazz, symphonic, and marching bands. Many of those whom I interviewed mentioned that every evening at the flag lowering ceremony the band would play and, when the weather permitted, would be quite well attended. The band also was a major feature in parades on Army, Memorial, and Independence Days.

The jazz band was generous with its time and energy, playing free of charge at many town dances (often held at the Oswego Armory) and at charity affairs, church affairs and sometimes in Washington Park on East Bridge Street. Some of the Oswegonians who heard the jazz band described it as “fantastic.” During this period of time it was quite customary to dance when a jazz band played, but, as one person told me, at a dance played at the Armory most people just sat and listened “with their mouths hanging open!”4 (Oswegonians themselves also enhanced the music playing—nine pianos were donated to the Fort.)

A story was related to me by Mrs. Doris Allen of Oswego which is important as one indication of the nature of the feelings between the local people and the 369th. A play, East Lynn, was staged in April of 1941 at St. Paul’s Church by the Black Friars, an acting group of which Mrs. Allen was a member. The 369th was invited and many attended. The event became increasingly lively and finally at the end of the play some of the men gathered up on the stage and played and sang for the cast and audience until four in the morning. One could certainly conclude that for something as warmhearted as this to have taken place there must have been a feeling of cordiality.

Of great significance reflecting the attitude or state of mind of Oswegonians toward the black 369th is the fact that almost every well known organization in the area invited at least one representative, usually an officer, of the 369th to be a guest speaker at least one of their gatherings. The Rotary Club, Kiwanis Club, Boy Scouts, Knights of Columbus, Chamber of Commerce, veteran’s groups, women’s organizations, churches and local schools all heard a member of the unit speak at least once. Quite often Colonel Hooper, Chaplin Ben Richardson (offhand I have counted fifteen church functions at which he spoke, and there were several more), A.G. Fallings (in charge of most recreational activities), “Long John” Woodruff, and Colonel W.F. Lucas were all called upon by groups not only in the city of Oswego, but in the entire surrounding area including Fulton, to speak.

Almost every guest speaker dealt with the black man’s situation in society. For example, A.G. Fallings spoke at a Kiwanis Club luncheon and stated that the white world had created a neighborhood out of the world but not a brotherhood. He further stated that “Negroes” had always protected the freedom of the country but had been given the short end of the deal at home. The white world was a prejudiced world.5 When Fallings addressed the Senior and Freshman classes of the Oswego Normal School, he urged the students to educate their emotions as well as their skills to help blacks build a better world for themselves. Ben Richardson spoke of such things as the integration of the black man into American culture.

The most significant thing about the speakers was that they were often invited to come again or another member of the unit was invited. So not only were many of the blacks willing to speak of things such as race relations, but many of the white groups were quite eager to listen.

I believe the primary reason for the eager reception of the black speakers lies in the fact that most Oswegonians had not had much previous contact with blacks. So possibly a good part of the racism that did exist existed on a somewhat dormant level. That is, quite often in places where there is a greater black population the whites often have deep racist feelings because characteristics that are taken as deplorable are often attributed to the black race rather than the socio-economic problems that plague the black man in America.

Also, Oswego’s location and resulting economy did not have ties or dependence on black labor, thus freeing it from the antagonistic situation that exists in the South.

All of this must be accepted in the relative sense. It would be foolish to say racism, overt or covert, did not exist in Oswego. I mean, simply, that racial prejudice was at a relatively low, or perhaps more sedate, level thus allowing Oswegonians to be somewhat more receptive to the black soldiers.

The 369th, according to most of those interviewed, did not act much differently from other units stationed at Fort Ontario. But there was definitely more of an introversion on the part of the 369th than most other units.

Most of the men did their drinking and were entertained at Whitey’s Savory, a restaurant-bar on the northeast corner of East Seventh and Seneca Streets. When the 369th came up from New York, Herbert White, who owned the well-known Savory’s in New York, came up and opened Whitey’s Savory in Oswego specifically for the 369th. Many of the men in the unit were his personal friends from New York.

Along with drinks, delicious fried chicken could be obtained and often women dancers from New York would entertain. An interesting and revealing letter written by Herbert White appeared in the Palladium-Times. It read as follows:

Sir—The situation is real grave when Herbert White, owner of Whitey’s Restaurant is refused accommodation. What are we to do? We are respectable and clean living. Why should color discrimination be held against us, when we are willing to pay our way?

The people of Oswego have plenty of rooming accommodations but refuse to cooperate in anyway. I am bringing entertainers from New York at my expense but, as an example, cannot find, because of refusal, a place for them to stay.

We came to Oswego with good honorable intentions, but why are we though [sic] of as otherwise. We are not squatters, but expect to be members of a respectable community

Every person I interviewed remembered Whitey’s and all had opinions about this place. Most agreed that Mr. White ran an orderly establishment but many Oswegonians mentioned that there was some resentment in the city over the fact that some local women would frequent his place.

Mr. White was a fairly important man to many of the 369ers for several reasons. Primarily, of course, he provided the men with a place of their own in which to feel totally at ease and accepted. His secondary functions were twofold. First, he acted as a link, a dispenser of information, from Oswego to New York. He was friendly with several of the men and, because of his establishment in New York, would often know “what was happening” back home. His very presence was comforting in that he was an extension of the home community. Second, he was a man who could be relied upon to help in rough times for he often lent money to the men when it was needed.

So Herbert White’s functions, both formal (as owner of the restaurant-bar) and informal were quite important both to the 369th and the Oswego community. Had not Mr. White provided a place the soldiers could call their own, feelings might have been tense. There would have been no specific place to “hang out” and relax, and very possibly the men would have been treated as intruders in many other establishments.

By the summer of 1941 the 369th was fairly well accepted as part of the Oswego scene. In fact as I was researching this subject day by day in the Palladium-Times, I could guess with quite a bit of accuracy just what would happen in each succeeding week. There would always be a few accounts of the subjects discussed by guest speakers from the 369th at various organizational functions (almost every week Chaplin Richardson spoke somewhere!)coverage of the local contests between sports teams of the 369th and local teams, the band would be mentioned as having played, announcements of future planned marches, motormarches, or equipment exhibitions, etc.

(Each month it was amusing to see how the Palladium-Times would carefully note how much money was paid to the soldiers and how many would not be going to Syracuse or New York to spend it.)

As a point of interest I might mention that the ghost which haunts Fort Ontario did not bother the men of the 369th. The story goes that a regiment from Scotland was stationed at the Fort in 1760. They were not used to the food here and so petitioned Britain for regular rations, particularly oatmeal. Several soldiers died because they could not adjust to the diet. The ghost, the spirit of one of those who died, appears wearing his white breeches and red coat before most units to see if they have a provision of oatmeal with them. It reportedly was seen by two outfits previously stationed at the Fort—the 23rd and the 28th Infantries.

One person who contacted me claimed the soldiers of the 369th were particularly afraid of ghosts and were unwilling to walk lonely night posts once they heard about the legend, but I have found nothing to support this claim. Neither were the soldiers anymore afraid of ghosts than other outfits nor were they anymore unwilling to accept lonely night posts.

As I have already mentioned, there were various sports activities carried on between the regiment and the local area. At this point it would be important to mention that, as far as I have been able to determine, all of the events were carried out with cordiality. If any overriding tensions existed between the local people and the soldiers they would have been evident in these sports activities. If the tensions were strong these events would have turned out to be more than simple athletic games. Resentment and hostility could easily have been vented with the sports competitiveness acting as catalyst, but they were not.

This is strong evidence supporting the opinion which contends that relations between the local people and the 369th were relatively very good. Mention should be made of an incident that almost put a shadow on the record of the 369th. I interviewed Frederick Scharf who is now Chief of Police in the city of Oswego but was a regular officer at the time of the 369th’s stay. Although nothing was mentioned in the newspaper (and Chief Scharf cannot remember the date), a near “riot” broke out on the corner of East First and Oneida Streets in front of the old Valencia Theater, which is no longer there. Approximately fifty Southern white soldiers were sent up to Fort Ontario for training. Apparently the 369ers did not hit it off so well with the Southerners!

The uncomfortable situation climaxed in front of the Valencia one evening with a number of Southerners on one side of the street and some of the 369ers on the other side. Chief Scharf said they were on the verge of coming to blows and probably would have had it not been for the skillful diplomacy of an Oswego policeman (whose name he did not mention). Needless to say, the Southerners were in Oswego only for a very short time. 

Even if they had clashed in violence a case could be made that it would not have significantly marred relations with the local community (except if there was property damage) because the conflict was with other outsiders, not with Oswegonians.

The soliders’ stay in Oswego was proceeding smoothly up until early June when, for a brief time, it looked as though good relations were shattering.

On July 6th Mrs. Daniel Conway (wife of Oswego’s mayor at that time) was alone in her home when a black man in a soldier’s uniform, upon being discovered by Mrs. Conway, began choking her. A few days later the military police were ordered to patrol residential areas.

On July 10th Pvt. W.E. McRae was seized by an officer and Mr. Bartholomew of East Fourth Street, who claimed McRae (who was then walking back to the Fort along the railroad tracks near East Fourth Street) was the man his wife saw trying to enter the rear of their home a couple of days earlier. The positive identification of McRae was very uncertain, to say the least, but he was nevertheless given sixty days in jail by Judge Hardie for “disorderly conduct.” Colonel Hooper, who acted in defense of McRae, said Bartholomew’s testimony was prejudiced by the Conway incident.

Later, on the 21st of July, a story appeared in the Palladium-Times indicating that many merchants believed, because they were noticing a slack in business, that Colonel Hooper had ordered an economic boycott of the city in protest to the sentencing of McRae.

Colonel Hooper denied giving any such order but that he did mention to the soldiers that there were some establishments, in town that they had better stay out of “for their own good.” He added that the soldiers may very well be boycotting on their own initiative.

Judging from the coverage of these incidents in the Palladium-Times it certainly appeared that a “black scare” was on. However, all of those residents whom I interviewed and questioned about this apparent “scare” denied that one had existed. The last mention of these incidents was on July 24th in the Palladium-Times which stated that Pvt. McRae’s sixty-day sentence had been greatly reduced on an appeal.

This is further evidence supporting the view that the 369th’s stay was a relatively successful one. If relations had been anything but stable, the above incidents would have had a greater impact. If there had been hostile relations certainly the local community would have protested strongly, but instead things returned to normal quite rapidly.

On August 17, 1941, orders were received by the 369th informing them that by early September they would no longer be stationed at Fort Ontario. Their new base would be at Camp Edwards in Massachusetts. The orders came as a total surprise to the outfit because originally they were supposed to be in Oswego for at least one year of training and it had only been about seven months at that point. The orders were received with mixed feelings by the men, but there was a general negative reaction among 200 some odd relatives and friends of the men who had moved into Oswego—this meant moving again. Some of them appealed to the New York Legislature to keep the 369th in Oswego but to no avail.

The fact that Camp Edwards was in generally flat, sandy, scrubby area, and that there were several other outfits there (which meant that they would no longer be the center of attention) were a couple of the disadvantages. An advantage to the move was the fact that fifty miles from Camp Edwards was a black population of 25,000. Also, some claimed, it was less traveling time to New York City.

It was unfortunate that the 369th left Oswego in September. If they had stayed the expected year some interesting movements that were just beginning would have developed to maturity. Many of the relatives and friends of the men were really just getting themselves settled as residents of Oswego. Because of the sudden move, there was no time to see how well a small residential black population of about 200 could be absorbed and accepted in Oswego. One particular segment of the black civilians were trying to get themselves well acquainted with Oswegonians. They were about twenty officers wives who formed the Officers’ Wives Association. Mrs. Benjamin Richardson appeared to lead the group and every few days during the month of August there would be a letter from the group in the “What People Say” columns of the Palladium-Times. Each letter would introduce one of the members. It would give her name, address, and a brief background. The group never got to finish introducing itself.

Most indications seemed to reveal that most of the men, while feeling they had been treated well in Oswego and the location had been fine, did not mind that they were leaving. The Palladium-Times, however, wrote the following:

Many members of the 369th appeared somewhat downcast at leaving Fort Ontario, particularly after some of their number Edward [sic] and reported back Edwards is garrisoned by 27,000 troops, sand, and scrub trees.

One group affected by the move certainly knew how to view the bright side of things—the local merchants. It was reported the 198th Artillery, replacing the 369th at Fort Ontario, had more men and thus received $10,000 more in pay.

All in all, judging from the local newspaper and all those interviewed, the black 369th had a relatively pleasant and cordial experience in Oswego. Certainly the vast majority of those to whom I spoke or had correspondence with felt that there had been no particular tension or hostility between the local people and the soldiers. Police Chief Scharf said that there had been no greater number of incidents with the 369th than with other outfits stationed at the Fort.

It appears that the soldiers also felt that their stay had been one which produced positive feelings. (I say “appears” because I have only been able to correspond with two members of the 369th.) Mr. Joseph H. Newman, a former member of the 369th, wrote to me the following opinion:

I think, on the whole, the Negro troops were warmly received by the people in Oswego. Being a Roman Catholic I attended Mass at St. Paul’s on Sundays. In fact there were a number of Negro Catholics who went to Mass there in a body (by the truck loads). And I can remember the kindly Father Howard who warmly welcomed the outfit.

There was much interaction at our Post Exchange and especially through the Evening Parades and Concerts—both jazz and symphonic.

I was personally fortunate in meeting people of Oswego who became my life long friends like the Kelley’s. When they had the Boat House a number of the fellows were invited to go for rides out on the lake.

Many of the veterans that I talk to have fond memories of Oswego and its citizens.

 The Palladium-Times wrote:

Many of the regiment expressed regret at leaving Oswego. The great majority of the officers and men feel they have been well treated by the townspeople, and say as much.

On September 1st the regiment moved out of Fort Ontario and camped on the nearby Johnson farm, so the 198th could move into the Fort. Early on Wednesday, September 3rd, the 369th left Oswego and started their 400 mile journey to Camp Edwards in a long motor convoy of 258 trucks. Some final celebrations and farewell ceremonies, which would have included a parade and a concert, planned for the last few days of the 369th’s stay were canceled because of rain and some other complications. So the epic ended with a whimper, not a bang!

It was interesting to find that the only recurring negative feeling, which was one of resentment held by some of those interviewed, was due to the fact that several local women found many of the black soldiers attractive. Several people related to me, with a touch of bitterness, that many white women would go to Whitey’s and date the soldiers.

A story relating to this was told to me by J.B. Kelly (one of the Kelly’s referred to in Joseph Newman’s letter) who at the time owned a small boat rental business. He said that local women would come in the evening and rent boats, taking them over to Fort Ontario. From then on he would not rent his boats to women in the evening.

I will not try to deal with the reason for this resentment over those women who accompanied black soldiers. I would have to get to the roots of racism to explain it and that is a task which I am incapable of performing nor is it the main subject of this paper. However, it is significant enough so as not to be totally ignored in this paper.

Its significance lies in its revelation of the point to which cordial relations extended. It is evident that throughout the stay of the 369th, the relationship that existed between the regiment and the local people was one of polite cordiality and toleration, but by no means total acceptance.

Most military outfits stationed at the Fort were treated as outsiders and transients, and have never really been accepted as Oswegonians. But the fact that the men were black added to the distance between Fort and city.

On the whole it must be said that the 369th left a relatively positive impression both as a military unit and as representatives of the black race. Benjamin Richardson called the 369th’s stay at Oswego “an experiment in social integration.” A.G. Fallings said the coverage of the 369th was the friendliest he ever saw given to any such group.

The 369th contributed to the community through its bands—military, symphonic and jazz. Entertainment was provided by sports activities, parades, military equipment exhibitions, ceremonies (particularly the retreat ceremony). In addition, and most importantly, the 369th, through its quality as a military outfit, its respect, and its dignity, helped to shatter many of those racial myths that have caused America to weaken internally by polarizations of large segments of its population.

By far the majority of people contacted in relation to this paper were pleased and impressed by the successful visit of the 369th and the respect it demanded and deserved.

Bibliography

• Among those interviewed were Thomas Christian, Melvin McFee, William DeFossett (president of the 369th Veterans Association), Frederick Scharf, Joseph Newman, Mr. and Mrs. J.B. Kelly, J. Leo Finn, Francis T. Riley, Mrs. Cavanaugh, Mrs. Frank Costello, Mrs. Edwin Tifft, Jane Woods, Dorothy Sheldon, Donald Pullen, Harold Clark, Leonard Weeks, Anthony Crisafulli, Harold Newstead, Mr. and Mrs. David Russell, Samuel Cutro, Wallace Workmaster, Frank Barbeau, Richard Clark, Doris Allen, Richard Smith, Kathryn C. Murphy, Richard Pettie, and many others whose names I did not record.
• Oswego Palladium-Times, January 23, 1941.
• “Jive in the Barracks,” Time, XXXVI I (March 17, 1941), p. 52
• Interview with Mrs. Edwin Tifft, secretary of the Red Cross in 1941. Oswego, New York, April, 1972
• Oswego Palladium-Times, February 27, 1941.
• Oswego Palladium-Times, March 18, 1941.
• “What People Say,” Oswego Palladium-Times, July 28, 1941.
• Mr. White stayed in Oswego after the 369th’s departure and eventually died here. 
• Oswego Palladium-Times, September 3, 1941.
• Letter from Joseph Newman to James J. Cummings, June 14, 1972.
• Oswego Palladium-Times, September 2, 1941.
• Interview with J.B. Kelly, Oswego, New York, May 1972.
• Oswego Palladium-Times, March 18, 1941.